If you have been following the news about drinking water safety, you have probably heard the term “forever chemicals.” These substances, known formally as PFAS, have become one of the most pressing environmental and public health concerns in the United States. But what exactly are they, how do they end up in your water, and what should you do about it?

This guide breaks down everything you need to know about PFAS in plain language, from the science behind these persistent chemicals to how you can get your water tested and what the results mean for your health and safety.

What Are PFAS and Where Do They Come From?

PFAS stands for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, a group of thousands of synthetic chemicals that have been manufactured and used in a wide range of industries since the 1940s. What makes PFAS unique, and uniquely dangerous, is the strength of the carbon-fluorine bond at their molecular core. This bond is one of the strongest in organic chemistry, which means PFAS do not break down easily in the environment. That durability is exactly why scientists and regulators call them “forever chemicals.”

PFAS are found in an enormous range of everyday products and industrial applications, including:

• Firefighting foam (AFFF): Aqueous film-forming foam has been widely used at military bases, airports, and fire training facilities for decades. These sites are among the most common sources of PFAS groundwater contamination.
• Nonstick coatings: Cookware, waterproof clothing, and stain-resistant fabrics often contain PFAS compounds.
• Food packaging: Grease-resistant paper wrappers, microwave popcorn bags, and fast-food containers have historically used PFAS-based coatings.
• Industrial manufacturing: Facilities producing electronics, chrome plating, and certain plastics may release PFAS into the surrounding environment.

Once released, PFAS travel through soil and into groundwater, where they can persist for decades or longer. They have been detected in drinking water supplies across the country, particularly near military installations, commercial airports, wastewater treatment plants, and landfills. According to estimates from the Environmental Working Group and other research organizations, more than 200 million Americans may have PFAS in their drinking water at detectable levels.

The widespread nature of PFAS contamination means this is not a problem limited to a few isolated communities. Whether your water comes from a municipal system or a private well, water testing is the only reliable way to know if PFAS are present.

Health Risks Associated with PFAS Exposure

The reason PFAS have drawn so much regulatory attention is their well-documented connection to serious health problems. Because these chemicals do not break down in the environment, they also do not break down easily in the human body. PFAS accumulate in blood and organs over time, and even low-level chronic exposure can contribute to adverse health outcomes.

Research conducted by the EPA, the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), and independent academic institutions has linked PFAS exposure to the following health effects:

• Cancer: Studies have found associations between PFAS exposure and increased risk of kidney cancer and testicular cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified PFOA, one of the most studied PFAS compounds, as a Group 1 carcinogen.
• Thyroid disease: PFAS can interfere with thyroid hormone production and regulation, potentially leading to hypothyroidism and other thyroid disorders.
• Immune system effects: Exposure to PFAS has been shown to reduce vaccine antibody response, making individuals more susceptible to infectious diseases. This finding is particularly concerning for children and immunocompromised populations.
• Reproductive issues: PFAS have been linked to decreased fertility, pregnancy-induced hypertension, and preeclampsia in women.
• Developmental effects in children: Prenatal and early childhood exposure may contribute to low birth weight, developmental delays, and hormonal disruption during critical growth periods.
• Liver damage: Elevated PFAS levels in the body have been associated with increased cholesterol levels and liver enzyme changes.

In response to the growing body of evidence, the EPA has issued and updated health advisories for PFAS over the past several years. In 2022, the EPA released interim updated health advisories that set advisory levels for PFOA and PFOS at near-zero concentrations, reflecting the agency’s conclusion that no level of exposure to these specific compounds is without risk.

Current EPA Regulations and PFAS Maximum Contaminant Levels

For years, PFAS regulation relied on non-enforceable health advisories. That changed significantly with the EPA’s 2024 PFAS National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (NPDWR), which established the first-ever legally enforceable limits for PFAS in public drinking water systems.

The key provisions of the 2024 rule include:

• Individual MCLs for PFOA and PFOS: The regulation sets maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) of 4 parts per trillion (ppt) for PFOA and 4 ppt for PFOS. These are among the lowest MCLs ever established for any drinking water contaminant, reflecting the extreme toxicity of these compounds at trace concentrations.
• MCLs for additional PFAS: The rule also sets individual MCLs of 10 ppt each for PFHxS, PFNA, and HFPO-DA (commonly known as GenX).
• Hazard index for PFAS mixtures: For combinations of PFHxS, PFNA, HFPO-DA, and PFBS, the regulation introduces a hazard index approach. This calculation accounts for the combined health risk when multiple PFAS are present simultaneously, even if each individual compound falls below its own MCL.
• State-level regulations: Several states have enacted PFAS regulations that are stricter than the federal standards. States including Michigan, New Jersey, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts have set their own enforceable limits, and some include additional PFAS compounds not covered by the federal rule.
• Compliance deadlines: Public water systems are required to complete initial monitoring and begin compliance actions within defined timeframes. Systems must conduct monitoring and, where MCL exceedances are found, implement treatment solutions or alternative water supplies.

For private well owners, it is important to understand that federal drinking water regulations apply only to public water systems. Private wells are not subject to these MCLs, which means the responsibility for testing and treatment falls entirely on the property owner. This makes proactive water testing even more critical for well owners, particularly those located near known or suspected PFAS contamination sources.

How to Get Your Water Tested for PFAS

Whether you are a municipality preparing for regulatory compliance, a business owner conducting due diligence, or a homeowner concerned about your family’s health, PFAS testing is a straightforward process when you work with a qualified laboratory.

Who Should Consider PFAS Testing?

• Public water systems subject to the new NPDWR requirements
• Private well owners, especially those near military bases, airports, industrial facilities, or landfills
• Businesses and property managers responsible for employee or tenant water safety
• Real estate professionals conducting environmental assessments
• Schools and childcare facilities monitoring water quality

Approved Testing Methods

The EPA has established specific analytical methods for PFAS testing in drinking water:

• EPA Method 537.1: Targets a defined list of PFAS compounds in drinking water, including PFOA and PFOS. This method is widely used for regulatory compliance monitoring.
• EPA Method 533: Expands the analyte list to include shorter-chain PFAS and other compounds not covered by Method 537.1, such as GenX and PFBS.

Both methods require the use of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) instrumentation and are validated to achieve the low detection limits necessary to measure PFAS at parts-per-trillion concentrations.

Sampling Requirements

PFAS testing demands careful sample collection procedures. Because PFAS are so prevalent in consumer products, standard sampling bottles and equipment can introduce contamination that compromises results. Proper PFAS sampling requires:

• PFAS-free sample containers provided by the laboratory
• Avoidance of certain clothing, sunscreens, and waterproof materials during collection
• Chain-of-custody documentation for regulatory submissions
• Proper preservation and shipping conditions

How AATLS Can Help

AATLS is an ISO 17025 accredited analytical laboratory equipped to perform comprehensive PFAS analysis using EPA-approved methods. Our team provides sampling kits with PFAS-free containers, detailed collection instructions, and technical support to ensure your results are accurate and defensible.

We work with municipal water systems, environmental consultants, private well owners, and commercial clients across the country. Typical turnaround times for PFAS analysis range from 10 to 15 business days, with rush options available for time-sensitive projects. Pricing varies depending on the analytical method and number of samples, and our client services team can provide a detailed quote tailored to your specific needs.

You can place orders directly through our online portal at orders.aatls.com.